* Europe- Complex pattern of trade union organisation, for example predominantly industrial unions (Germany), ‘multi-unionism’ (UK) and religious/ political affiliation (Latin countries)
* US- Sixty five industrial and occupational unions under single ‘umbrella’ (AFL- CIO)
* Japan- Enterprise based unions organised into sectoral federations with one major ‘umbrella’ (Rengo)
* Europe- Variations from an ‘instrumental’ approach (Germany and UK) to overt political orientation (France and Italy)
* US- Emphasis on ‘business unionism’
* Japan- ‘Insider’ orientation in business enterprises
* In continental Europe, regarded as ‘social partners’ alongside trade union representatives. Employer ‘voice’ at EU, national and sectoral levels
* US- No national intersectoral body with labour relations role
* Japan- Single business federation (Nippon Keidanren) does not participate in collective bargaining with trade unions, but is involved in formal tri-partite dialogue with government and trade unions
* Europe-Traditional tendency towards centralisation in continental Europe, considerable variation across Europe including high decentralisation in UK and new member states. Overall trend towards decentralisation
* US- Where bargaining occurs predominant level is enterprise. ‘Pattern bargaining’ involved extension of collective agreements to other firms in sectors
* Japan- Predominant level is at enterprise, although co-ordination amongst trade unions and employers during annual ‘shunto’ bargaining
* Involvement- seeking to engender employee commitment to the (management defined) objectives of the organisation- prevalent in ‘neo-liberal’ systems
* Participation- seeking to engender consensus and ceding areas of managerial authority to employee representatives- Supported by the state- prevalent in ‘neo-corporatist’ systems
* Employee commitment engendered through lifetime employment, consensus decision making, quality circles,...
